The effects of Science Skepticism is out in the open for all to see, and enumerate – the number of preventable COVID-19 deaths, the number of vaccine-preventable diseases making a comeback, or the billions of metric tons of ice in Antarctica (151 billion) and Greenland (277 billion) melting each year. But, we are less certain about the causes of Science Skepticism.
According to previous research, the variants of science skepticism – vaccine skepticism, climate change skepticism, GM skepticism, and evolution skepticism have different ideological roots. For example, a 2018 study by Rutjens et al. found that in the US:
- political conservatism best predicts climate change skepticism,
- religiosity best predicts vaccine skepticism,
- faith in science and science literacy best predicts genetically modified (GM) food skepticism.
A 2020 study by Rutjens et al. in the Netherlands found similar results:
- political conservatism, and low faith in science best predicts with climate change skepticism,
- Spirituality (not religiosity) best predicts vaccine skepticism,
- scientific literacy best predicts GM food skepticism.
Since these studies only looked at trends in one country each and they both came from the west, it was necessary to check if similar trends are present more globally and across nations. Recently, a study by Bastiaan Rutjens et al. investigated the ideological roots of science skepticism in 24 countries, including WEIRD countries (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) and non-WEIRD countries (N = 5,973, on average 249 per country). Participants in the study were asked to indicate how much they agreed with “items” in a questionnaire using a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Items were statements like “Human CO2 emissions cause climate change,” “Vaccinations cause autism,” “Genetic modification of foods is a safe and reliable technology,” and “Human beings, as we know them today, developed from earlier species of animals.”
Participants were then asked questions that assessed their Political conservatism, Religiosity, Religious orthodoxy (“God has been defined for once and for all and therefore is immutable”), Spirituality, Scientific literacy, Moral purity concerns, Perceived corruption of science (“Science is corrupted by government interference” and “Science is corrupted by corporate interference.”
In line with previous research, researchers found that the various ‘skepticisms’ were fueled by different ideologies. Political conservatism was a significant predictor of climate change skepticism across nations, although the trend was particularly strong in WEIRD countries. The correlation between political conservatism and climate change skepticism was strongest in the US and Canada, followed by Australia and the Netherlands (all WEIRD countries).
Spirituality and scientific literacy, as expected, were significant predictors of vaccine skepticism across nations. However, religious orthodoxy was not a significant predictor. In addition, the trend was not unequally strong in WEIRD countries, suggesting a more global trend.
In line with previous research, scientific literacy was a significant predictor of GM skepticism in 17 out of 24 countries. Religious orthodoxy was a significant predictor of evolution skepticism in 20/24 countries. Spirituality emerged as the best all-rounder, contributing the most to science skepticism in general and across nations. The negative effects of spirituality on ‘faith in science’ was especially strong in WEIRD countries than non-WEIRD countries.
“The negative impact of spirituality on faith in science represents a cross-national phenomenon”
The fact that spirituality puts a bigger dent on ‘faith in science’ than religious orthodoxy is a little surprising. Researchers think that a possible explanation for this may be the irreconcilability of truth-finding methods in spiritual belief systems with those in science.
“If so, then we might look at a potentially much larger problem that extends beyond spirituality and applies more generally to “post-truth” society, in which truth and perceptions of reality may be based on feelings rather than facts.”
Read more about the study by Bastiaan Rutjens, Nikhil Sengupta, Romy van der Lee, Guido van Koningsbruggen, Jason Martens , Andre Rabelo, and Robbie Sutton here.
